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| Forgotten Founders Exhibit at RNC's CivicFest 2008 |
The Forgotten Founders is an independent, non-partisan, and
non-profit organization dedicated to enhancing public understanding and
appreciation of the three republics that ultimately shaped the foundation of
the current Republic of the United States. The organization’s primary mission
is to establish a Presidential Center with the following objectives:
Objectives
1.
Recognition of Continental Congress
Presidents of the United Colonies (1774–1776)
Advocate for official acknowledgment of the four men who served as Presidents
of the Continental Congress during the United Colonies period:
- Peyton Randolph: Sept. 5, 1774 – October 22, 1774 & May 20, 1775 – May 24, 1775
- Henry Middleton: October 22, 1774 – October 26, 1774
- John Hancock: May 25, 1775 – July 1, 1776
2.
Recognition of Continental Congress
Presidents of the United States (1776–1781)
Promote U.S. Head of State recognition for the four men who served as
Presidents during the Continental Congress period of the United States:
- John Hancock: July 2, 1776 – October 29, 1777
- Henry Laurens: November 1, 1777 – December 9, 1778
- John Jay: December 10, 1778 – September 28, 1779
- Samuel Huntington: September 29, 1779 – February 28, 1781
3.
Recognition of Presidents under the Articles
of Confederation (1781–1789)
Secure U.S. Head of State recognition for the ten men who served as Presidents
under the Constitution of 1777 and the Articles of Confederation:
- Samuel Huntington: March 1, 1781 – July 6, 1781
- Thomas McKean: July 10, 1781 – November 4, 1781
- John Hanson: November 5, 1781 – November 3, 1782
- Elias Boudinot: November 4, 1782 – November 2, 1783
- Thomas Mifflin: November 3, 1783 – June 3, 1784
- Richard Henry Lee: November 30, 1784 – November 22, 1785
- John Hancock: November 23, 1785 – June 5, 1786
- Nathaniel Gorham: June 6, 1786 – February 1, 1787
- Arthur St. Clair: February 2, 1787 – January 21, 1788
- Cyrus Griffin: January 22, 1788 – January 21, 1789
4.
Founding Recognition for Key Figures
(1774–1788)
Promote recognition for the delegates, commissioners, judges, ministers,
military officers, and other officials who played pivotal roles in the
governance and establishment of the United Colonies and the United States of
America during the period from 1774 to 1788. Special emphasis is placed on
honoring George Washington, who served as the Commander-in-Chief of the United
Colonies and States of America from June 15, 1775, to December 23, 1783, for
his unparalleled leadership during the Revolutionary War.
5.
First Lady Recognition
Highlight the vital role of First Ladies in American history, particularly in
hospitality, social activism, and advisory roles, even before the ratification
of the 1787 Constitution. For example: In 1776, John Hancock, as President of
the Continental Congress, served as the new nation’s Head of State. His wife,
Dorothy Hancock, alongside Martha Washington (wife of Commander-in-Chief George
Washington), performed significant roles in providing aid and hospitality to
prominent figures of the era.
Educational Initiatives
The Forgotten Founders organization also serves as a resource for citizens and institutions seeking to establish educational and research centers dedicated to increasing public understanding of the Presidents of the 1774–1788 period and the broader U.S. Founding era.
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| Loyola University New Orleans Faculty 2016 Exhibit Research Collection at DNC's Politicalfest |
Most U.S. citizens are familiar with the signing of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, and know that George Washington became the first President of the United States. However, Washington did not take the presidential oath of office until April 30, 1789. This raises important questions:
- Who signed ratified treaties on behalf of the United States between July 1776 and April 1789?
- Who determined the measures to be addressed by the United States government for executive, judicial, and legislative action?
- Who presided over the unicameral congresses of the time?
- Who resolved judicial matters, such as disputes over state boundaries?
- Who officially received and entertained foreign diplomats representing the United States?
- Who handled official correspondence addressed to the United States of America?
- Who issued federal orders to Commander-in-Chief George Washington during the Revolutionary War?
- Finally, who served as the “Head of State” for the United States during this critical period?
According to independent scholar and author Stanley Yavneh Klos, the evolution of the United States of America unfolded in four distinct stages. In the first three stages, fourteen men served as Presidents, acting as leaders of three distinct unicameral republics that collectively waged war against Great Britain. Klos identifies and labels these three founding republics in his book, America’s Four Republics: The More or Less United States, writing:
"From the inception of the United Colonies of America in 1774 to the Revolutionary War’s concluding Definitive Treaty of Peace in 1784, the 13 British Colonies and later States formed confederations that fulfilled Montesquieu’s requisite for a republic, ‘degree of power as to be able to provide for the security of the united body.’ According, then, to the philosophe’s definition, a colonial republic began with the formation of an association titled, Continental Congress: United Colonies of America."1
Alexander Hamilton, in the same Federalist letter of November 1787 in which he references Montesquieu, expands upon the concept of the United States as a confederacy:
"The definition of a confederate republic seems simply to be ‘an assemblage of societies,’ or an association of two or more states into one state. The extent, modifications, and objects of the federal authority are mere matters of discretion. So long as the separate organization of the members be not abolished; so long as it exists, by a constitutional necessity, for local purposes; though it should be in perfect subordination to the general authority of the union, it would still be, in fact and in theory, an association of states, or a confederacy. The proposed Constitution, so far from implying an abolition of the State governments, makes them constituent parts of the national sovereignty, by allowing them a direct representation in the Senate, and leaves in their possession certain exclusive and very important portions of sovereign power. This fully corresponds, in every rational import of the terms, with the idea of a federal government." 2
In Hamilton’s view, a “confederacy” is defined not only by the union of states under federal authority but also by the continued sovereignty and governmental independence of those states as subordinate yet essential components of national sovereignty.
In 1788, James Madison, writing in Federalist No. 39, further clarified the definition of a republic, emphasizing the derivation of its power from the people:
"… we may define a republic to be, or at least may bestow that name on, a government which derives all its powers directly or indirectly from the great body of the people, and is administered by persons holding their offices during pleasure, for a limited period, or during good behavior. It is essential to such a government that it be derived from the great body of the society, not from an inconsiderable proportion, or a favored class of it; otherwise, a handful of tyrannical nobles, exercising their oppressions by a delegation of their powers, might aspire to the rank of republicans, and claim for their government the honorable title of republic. It is sufficient for such a government that the persons administering it be appointed, either directly or indirectly, by the people; and that they hold their appointments by either of the tenures just specified…"3
Reflecting on these definitions by Montesquieu, Hamilton, and Madison, Klos argues that three distinct republics preceded the establishment of the current government of the United States. Each republic marks a unique stage in the nation’s evolution, with its name and identity derived from its founding resolution or constitution, as follows:
Governments of the Four Republics
First United American Republic Government:
- The United Colonies of America Continental Congress (U.C. Continental Congress)
- Governed under the Articles of Association and other resolutions, with the name “United Colonies of America” which was notably utilized in the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms, a Resolution adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 6, 1775. Written by Thomas Jefferson and revised by John Dickinson, the Declaration explains why the Thirteen Colonies had taken up arms in what had become the American Revolutionary War..
Second United American Republic Government:
- The United States of America Continental Congress (U.S. Continental Congress)
- Established first by the Reolution of Independency and then by the Declaration of Independence, which changed the Republic's name from “United Colonies of North America” to “United States of America”.
Third United American Republic Government:
- The United States in Congress Assembled (Confederation Congress)
- Formed and governed under the Articles of Confederation, this government laid the groundwork for the modern U.S. presidency.
Fourth United American Republic Government:
- The United States Bicameral Congress, President, and Supreme Court
- Established by the Constitution of 1787, creating a tripartite system of government that endures today.
Footnotes
- Stanley Yavneh Klos, America’s Four Republics: The More or Less United States (Forgotten Founders, Inc., 2008).
- Alexander Hamilton, The Federalist Papers, No. 9, November 1787.
- James Madison, The Federalist Papers, No. 39, 1788.
The First United American Republic Government:
- The United Colonies of America Continental Congress (U.C. Continental Congress)
- The name “Continental Congress” was formally adopted in the Articles of Association, and the designation “United Colonies of America” was derived from various resolutions enacted by this U.C. Continental Congress. 1
The Second United American Republic Government:
- The United States of America Continental Congress (U.S. Continental Congress)
- The term “Colonies” was replaced with “States” in the Declaration of Independence, marking the transition from the United Colonies to the United States of America. 2
The Third United American Republic Government:
- The United States in Congress Assembled (USCA or Confederation Congress)
- This government was established under the Articles of Confederation, which officially adopted the governing body's name as the “United States in Congress Assembled.” 3
The Fourth United American Republic Government:
- The United States House of Representatives and Senate in Congress Assembled (Bicameral Congress), The President of the United States of America, and The United States Supreme Court
- These institutions were established under the Constitution of 1787, marking the transition to a tripartite system of government. For clarity in this context, the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate in Congress Assembled is abbreviated as the U.S. Bicameral Congress.<sup>4</sup>
Footnotes
- Articles of Association (1774).
- Declaration of Independence (1776).
- Articles of Confederation (1781).
- Constitution of the United States (1787).
At Forgotten Founders, we recognize that each stage of the nation’s evolution represents a distinct origin date for four uniquely different United American Republics. Beginning with Peyton Randolph in 1774, elected officials served as “Heads of State” for the United Colonies and later for the United States under their respective unicameral governments.
Who were these Presidents of the Continental Congress, and later the Presidents of the United States under the nation’s first constitution, the Articles of Confederation? What responsibilities did they shoulder? How did they navigate the challenges of leading a nascent nation during a time of war, hyperinflation, the collapse of the U.S. Dollar, massive federal debt, religious tolerance, treaty negotiations, imprisonment, court-martials, state disputes, taxation crises, and a flawed governing framework? Ultimately, the framers determined that the Articles of Confederation could not sustain the union, leading to the reformulation of the “Perpetual Union of the United States” under a new constitution.
The preservation and illumination of the historical records surrounding these 14 Presidents, whose roles and duties were markedly different from those of the President established by the Constitution of 1787, form a cornerstone of the Forgotten Founders' mission. These men acted as Heads of State, with ten serving as Presidents of the United States under the Articles of Confederation.
Their stories are filled with compelling and unexpected moments, such as President Henry Middleton’s surrender to the British in 1780 and Scotland-born President Arthur St. Clair’s advocacy for a new constitution that prohibited foreign-born citizens from becoming President. Analyzing the first three United American Republics provides valuable insights into the development of the Constitution of 1787 and the office of the U.S. Presidency as we know it today.
Furthermore, the lessons learned from the tumultuous founding period—when the fragile confederation repeatedly pulled itself back from the brink of economic, political, and military disaster—are highly relevant to addressing the challenges faced by the United States in the present day. The resilience and ingenuity demonstrated by these early leaders remain an enduring source of guidance and inspiration.
Forgotten Presidential Facts
State Delegations to Congress
- Each colony or state elected or appointed a delegation to represent it in the Continental Congress or the constitutional government referred to as "The United States, in Congress Assembled."
- Regardless of population size or the number of delegates, each state was allotted only one vote in both the Continental Congress and the United States, in Congress Assembled.
Presidential Elections and Voting
- Presidents were elected by a simple majority of the states present, provided a quorum was formed.
- The confederation Presidents, through their unicameral office, exerted significant influence on public affairs and legislation. For instance, the President, in conjunction with his state’s delegation, held one of thirteen votes. In some cases, his “yes” or “no” vote constituted 1/9th or even 1/7th of all votes required to pass legislation under the Continental Congress. The Articles of Confederation, required at least two delegates from a state to be present so his vote constituted at the very least 1/14th of votes cast..
Presiding Over Government Functions
- Presidents functioned as voting "Speakers of the House," presiding over judicial, legislative, and executive matters of the confederation.
- Under the Continental Congress, the President had the authority to convene or adjourn the confederation government. These rules were changed under the Articles of Confederation limiting Presidential powers.
Correspondence and Communications
- Continental Congress Presidents received, read, and answered official correspondence from both states and foreign entities. At their discretion, they could withhold or disseminate such communications. These rules were changed under the Articles of Confederation limiting Presidential powers.
Committee of the States
- Presidents were empowered to chair the Committee of the States, which under the Articles of Confederation, managed confederation governance when Congress was not in session.
Role as Head of State
- Presidents welcomed visiting dignitaries to the Capitol and extended the nation’s official hospitality in their role as Head of State.
Judicial Responsibilities
- Continental Congress Presidents acted as judicial officers, presiding over various legal cases, including:
- Federal court appeals
- Death penalty appeals
- Military trials
- State boundary disputes
- These rules were changed under the Articles of Confederation limiting Presidential powers.
- Continental Congress Presidents acted as judicial officers, presiding over various legal cases, including:
Military and Diplomatic Authority
- Although not serving as Commander-in-Chief, Presidents issued military orders and signed military commissions.
- They also executed diplomatic commissions, treaties, proclamations, resolutions, ordinances, and loan agreements.
Presidential Resources and Compensation
- The government of the United States provided for the President’s expenses, including servants, clerks, housing, and transportation.
- Presidents were paid a salary by their home state, but only in their capacity as voting delegates.
These often-overlooked aspects of the confederation Presidents’ roles highlight the breadth and complexity of their duties, as well as their critical contributions to the governance of the early United States.
NOTES
- James Madison, “Federalist XXXIX: Conformity of the Plan to Republican Principles.” Independent Journal, New York: January 16, 1788.
- The name United Colonies of America was first introduced as part of a Continental Congress resolution in Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration Setting Forth the Causes and Necessity of Their Taking up Arms. Although passed as the United Colonies of North America on July 21, 1775, the word “North” was dropped by 1776.
- Georgia sent no delegates to the First Continental Congress.
- The name “Continental Congress” was formally adopted by Congress in the Articles of Association dated October 20, 1774.
- The name United States of America was formally adopted by Congress in the Declaration of Independence dated July 4, 1776.
- The term “Free and Independent States” was formally adopted by Congress in Richard Henry Lee’s Resolution for Independence on July 2, 1776.
- New York did not approve independence from Great Britain until July 9, 1776.
- The term “The Perpetual Union” was formally adopted by Congress in the Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777, and ratified by all 13 states on March 1, 1781.
- Although formulated by Congress on November 15, 1777, the Articles of Confederation required unanimous ratification by all 13 states before enactment. By February 1, 1779, 12 states had ratified the document. Maryland delayed its ratification until February 2, 1781.
- The term “We the People” was formally adopted by the Philadelphia Convention on September 17, 1787, in the preamble to the current U.S. Constitution and ratified by eleven states forming the new republic by the summer of 1788.
- The states of North Carolina (November 21, 1789) and Rhode Island (May 29, 1790) did not ratify the Constitution of 1787 until after the federal government was established in New York on March 4, 1789.
- The U.S. Continental Congress is also known as the Second Continental Congress.
- Articles of Association. Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789, ed. Worthington C. Ford et al. (Washington, D.C., 1904–37), 19:137, October 20, 1774. Future references will be to JCC, 1774–1789.
- The U.C. Continental Congress is also known as the First and Second Continental Congress.
- Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. JCC, 1774–1789.
- Articles of Confederation, March 1, 1781. JCC, 1774–1789.
- Constitution of the United States. Charters of Freedom, National Archives, http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution.html.
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| Richard Henry Lee's Stratford Hall On the Half-Dollar Coin Act |
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| Thomas Jefferson's Monticello on the Half Dollar Coin Act |
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| College of William and Mary on the Half Dollar Coin Act |
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| U.S. Mint on the Half Dollar Coin Act |
Norwich, Connecticut
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| Gubernatorial Proclamation Declaring Samuel Huntington
the First President of the United States in Congress Assembled
The Congressional Evolution of the United States of America For students and teachers of U.S. history, this video features Stanley and Christopher Klos presenting America's Four United Republics Curriculum at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. Filmed in December 2015, this video is an informal recording by an audience member capturing a presentation attended by approximately 200 students, professors, and guests. To explore the full curriculum, [download it here]. Continental Congress of the United Colonies Presidents Sept. 5, 1774 to July 1, 1776
Commander-in-Chief United Colonies & States of America George Washington: June 15, 1775 - July 1, 1776 July 2, 1776 to February 28, 1781
Commander-in-Chief United States of America George Washington: July 2, 1776 - February 28, 1781 Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled March 1, 1781 to March 3, 1789
Commander-in-Chief United States of America George Washington: March 2, 1781 - December 23, 1783 Articles of Confederation Congress United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) Sessions
Presidents of the United States of America Capitals of the United Colonies and States of America
 Secure a unique primary source exhibit and a professional speaker for your next event by reaching out to Historic.us today. Serving a wide range of clients—including Fortune 500 companies, associations, nonprofits, colleges, universities, national conventions, and PR and advertising agencies—we are a premier national exhibitor of primary sources. Our engaging and educational historic displays are crafted to captivate and inform your audience, creating a memorable experience. Join our roster of satisfied clients and see how Historic.us can elevate your event. Contact us to explore options tailored to your audience and objectives! Historic.us A Non-profit Corporation Primary Source Exhibits Exhibit Inquiries 202-239-1774 | Office Stan@Historic.us Website: www.Historic.us Edited: Open AI. (2024). ChatGPT [Large language model] - https://chatgpt.com |
